Theory of Learning
Learning is central to humanity’s existence. Early philosophers such as Aristotle and Confucius concerned themselves with the importance of learning and the place it had in a society (Merriam & Bierema, 2013). They developed ways to explain how knowledge is attained, remembered, and disseminated. Though theories of learning have changed and developed since ancient times, with many theories emerging in recent centuries, a few commonalities can be found across time and culture. Synthesizing these similarities, I believe learning is a process that occurs in context, individually or collectively, where previous knowledge is drawn upon, and new knowledge is acquired through a variety of formal and informal settings, means, and processes. Learning varies from culture to culture; it depends in part on the individual’s identity, the places and spaces where learning occurs, and the value put on knowledge by the individual and society.
Collective and Individual Learning
Learning happens when individuals gain new information with guidance from others. A primary tenant of my theory of learning comes from Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, which positioned social context as key to learning. Vygotsky (1979) argued each learner has a zone of proximal development (ZPD) in which they are capable of completing a task only with guidance and assistance from a more knowledgeable other (MKO). This MKO could be, but does not have to be, a teacher or mentor. An MKO could be a family member, peer, or friend. It could also be a Reddit forum or YouTube video. When I first learned how to sew in a zipper, my grandmother was my MKO, guiding me through the process. I already knew how to work a sewing machine and do French seams but did not know how to put in a zipper. With my grandmother’s help, I learned how to attach a zipper. Sewing a zipper was within my ZPD: a task I was unable to do on my own, but with the scaffolding from an MKO I learned how to complete this task. Later in my sewing journey, another MKO, the head costumer at my high school, showed me how to work a serger in much the same way my grandmother taught me to sew a zipper. These examples demonstrate the important role others play in learning, whether they are formal instructors or not, and how learning in the zone of proximal development requires support (Cherry, 2024b). This social element is crucial to the way I believe individuals learn.
When an individual learns, the situation and context are significant factors. As I believe in the importance of place, I draw on work from Lave and Wenger (1991). Lave and Wenger (1991) advocated for situative learning as it places the learner in an authentic context where they can work with and receive help from others. The other individuals involved could be an expert, a mentor, or a peer and what matters is the situation in which learning occurs and is applied. My grandfather, who worked as a master tradesman, often spoke of the disconnect between knowledge obtained in schools and the application of the knowledge in the real world. He worked with college graduates with engineering degrees who could name the parts of an engine, but struggled to put one together on the shop floor. In contrast, my grandfather learned by apprenticeship as a junior tradesman on the job. Exemplifying the aspects of the importance of situation and context, as a mentor, my grandfather tore apart engines with the graduates and put them back together with them. It was this hands-on learning that allowed the younger workers to put the theory of what they learned to practice.
While the social elements of learning influence how and what a person learns, I believe learning can – and does – also happen individually. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development – which argued children’s growth is similar across cultures – indicated that learning can happen in isolation (Cherry, 2024b). Similarly, Knowles’s (1980) theory of andragogy argued adult learning can be done individually and is influenced by adults’ intrinsic, self-driven motivation. Though I learned to sew zippers from my grandmother, I learned to sew my first dress on my own. My friend in high school wanted a 1950s style dress. I borrowed the top from her sister’s old prom dress, and made the skirt myself without any tutorials or outside help. (It was the dress of my friend’s dreams!) This instinctive, internal, drive to learn and grow is what informs my idea that learning can be done individually. The emergence, and now pervasiveness, of self-paced and individual learning opportunities, particularly online, exemplify this phenomenon.
Photo by Los Muertos Crew on Pexels.com
Image: the prom dress I made my friend
Reflection is a key component of individual learning. I find Mezirow’s (2000) explanation regarding the importance of reflection in learning aligns best with my thinking; a learner must be able to transform our taken-for-granted frames of reference (meaning, schemes, habits of mind, mindsets) to make them more inclusive, discriminating, open, emotionally capable of change, and reflective so that they may generate beliefs and opinions that will prove more true or justified to guide actions (p. 84). Learners must be able to make meaning of their experience. The processes by which this happens – self-reflection, questioning, assessing, and synthesizing – are all individual processes. I have participated in many college classes where I have read the material on my own, and then submitted a paper reflecting on the material to my professor for grading without another set of eyes seeing it. I have learned through such experiences because I have been able to draw upon my own knowledge and conduct research to develop a deeper understanding.
Photo by Godisable Jacob on Pexels.com
Prior Knowledge as a Foundation for Learning
Piaget argued the brain stores information in webs of information called schemas (Cherry, 2024a). These schemas contain all information – factual and emotional – related to a given topic. These schemas are valuable sources of information when presented with an opportunity to learn. My experiences with sewing over time, from learning to insert a zipper with my grandmother, to learning in the costume shop in high school, have formed a vast schema of sewing knowledge. From learning how to pick up a needle and thread for basic cross-stitch embroidery as a child, to the feeling of pride when my grandmother complimented my job on a quilt, to how to make quick-changes in theatre possible through costuming, I am able to recall this information when presented with a sewing project. This schema came in quite useful when I first took on the role of head customer for a show.
The show required all outfits to fit within the style of the 1920s – loose dresses, ties and vests for the men – and many pieces had to be constructed. I drew on my schema of sewing and costuming to both create costumes and teach my volunteers how to hand sew lace or work a sewing machine. I used my schema of garment construction to make patterns for drop waist dresses.
This experience exemplifies the presence and importance of assimilation and accommodation in schemas (Cherry, 2024a). Much of the knowledge I gained from costuming was assimilated – integrated – to my knowledge of sewing. For my volunteers, knowledge was accommodated – constructed – to their schema for sewing as they changed their thinking in this process, particularly in relation to how difficult they perceived sewing to be (Cherry, 2024a). As they went through the process of costuming a show, they grew in self-efficacy, and changed their schema to see sewing as a positive instead of mystifying experience, and build on their prior knowledge along the way.
Formal and Informal Settings
The places learning occurs in – such as the costume shop or classroom – deeply influence learning and are closely intertwined with my social and cognitive beliefs about learning. Places can be categorized into formal and informal spaces and learning happens in each of these contexts. Formal learning is planned and structured. It often happens in schools or at places of work. Much of my job as a public school teacher is providing formal learning experiences to my students. When I am creating experiences in my classroom, I keep the learner centered in my process to maximize the learner’s motivation, gain their attention, and assist in the retention and reproduction of knowledge (Bandura, 1971). To do this, I must take into account who the students are as individuals, what prior knowledge they bring to the experience, and how their learning is situated in my classroom to most impact them. Learning can then occur in my classroom, because the students feel valued, are able to draw on prior knowledge, and use the classroom environment as a place for exploration and meaning-making.
Lave and Wenger (1991) proposed the theory of situated learning as it places the learner within an authentic context where they can work with, and receive help from, others. The other individuals involved could be someone with more expertise like a mentor, or could be a peer. Ultimately, what matters is the situation in which learning occurs and is applied. By placing the learner within the context for which they need to use the learning, this shows the learner how to apply the knowledge they have received.
Informal places, such as affinity spaces (Gee & Price, 2021), are also places where learning occurs. Affinity spaces are any place or space where people’s interactions are centered around a common interest (Hoffman, 2012). These are powerful places for informal, situated, learning that often depend on others functioning as MKOs in the same situated space. The cosplay community is a prime example of this. I have followed tutorials by professional cosplayers to learn how to make armor pieces for renaissance fairs. Similarly, I have shared my knowledge of hand sewing and embroidery on message threads to help others learn. The cosplay community makes use of the internet and in-person spaces to meet up, share knowledge, and grow in their craft.
While formal learning is important and people of all ages spend a large amount of time in formal learning spaces, informal learning comprises most of a person’s learning during their lifetime. From unplanned moments at home, on the job, in communal spaces or even online, informal learning is powerful due to its contextual nature. When I was learning how to use gouache paint, I engaged in informal learning. From consulting a friend who was familiar with the medium, to watching videos on YouTube, I arguably learned more than I would have in a formal class as I was able to direct my own learning and choose what to explore.
Valuing a Learner’s Identity
I believe when learners feel safe, valued, and respected, learning comes more easily. Freire’s (2009) work emphasized the importance of learner choice and voice. Freire also advocated for dismantling the traditional hierarchy between teacher and learner. When I learned how to sew a zipper from my grandmother, I was much more receptive to feedback, and learned more easily because I knew my grandmother valued my thoughts and feelings. When my volunteers in the costume shop needed help threading a needle or attaching a button, I showed them in a way that matched their level of experience and affirmed the work they were doing. This aligns with social and cognitive theories of learning, as it emphasizes connection and situation.
I believe the identity of the learner is as important to learning as the learning experience itself. Theorists who posited identity as crucial to a person’s ability to learn (e.g., Freire, 2009; Ladson-Billings, 1995) support my beliefs that critical thinking and dialogue are core strategies for helping learners learn. Ladson-Billings (1995) conceptualized this as critical consciousness, helping students spark further inquiry through culturally competent teachings. Ladson-Billings demonstrated that embracing one’s culture and connecting to the community can increase learning both intellectually and socially-emotionally. I see this idea in action when my 11th grade students, as part of my school’s curriculum, begin writing their “what it means to be an American.” I encourage students to go out into the community and interview teachers, friends, family, or other community members about their definitions. When my students do this, their understanding of what it means to be an American is strengthened by the experience by the diverse experiences of others. Students who choose to interview others show more insight in their essays and have more specific definitions; in the linked example, the student’s interview clearly influenced the conclusion of the essay. This assignment affirms their identity as Americans and also connects them to their communities.
Final Thoughts
Learning is a complex and multifaceted process. It happens in formal and informal contexts by oneself or with others, uses prior knowledge, and creates new meaning through a variety of activities. The identity of the learner and the sociocultural environment they are part of is central to one’s ability to learn. When a learner is part of an environment that values learning, they feel safe to make mistakes, gain new understandings, and grow. The interaction of cognitive, cultural, and emotional factors all impact learning as seen in the diversity of learning approaches across time and culture.
References
Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1971). Social learning theory. (Vol. 1). General Learning Press.
Cherry, K. (2024a, May 13). What is a schema in psychology?. verywell mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-schema-2795873
Cherry, K. (2024c, July 12). What is sociocultural theory?. verywell mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-sociocultural-theory-2795088
Freire, P. (2009). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Race/Ethnicity: Multidisciplinary Global Contexts 2(2), 163-174.
Gee, J.P. & Price, A. (2021). Game-design teaching and learning. Strategies, 34(3), pp. 35-38. DOI: 10.1080/08924562.2021.1896928
Hoffman, R. (2012, September 18). How-to: Affinity spaces [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sbzf1YCeZ84&t=2s
Knowles, M. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy. (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge Books.
Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. American Educational Research Journal, 32(3), 465-491.https://doi.org/10.2307/1163320
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press.
Merriam, S. B., Bierema, L. L., & Bierema, L. L. (2013). Adult learning: Linking theory and practice. Wiley.
Mezirow, J. (2000). Learning to think like an adult: Core concepts of transformation theory. In J. Mezirow & Associates, Learning as transformation: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress (pp.3-33), San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1979). Consciousness as a problem in the psychology of behavior. Russian Social Science Review, 20(4), 47–79.