Theory of Learning 

Learning is central to humanity’s existence. Early philosophers such as Aristotle and Confucius concerned themselves with the importance of learning and the place it had in a society (Merriam & Bierema, 2013). They developed ways to explain how knowledge is attained, remembered, and disseminated. Though theories of learning have changed and developed since ancient times, with many theories emerging in recent centuries, a few commonalities can be found across time and culture. Synthesizing these similarities, I believe learning is a process that occurs in context, individually or collectively, where previous knowledge is drawn upon, and new knowledge is acquired through a variety of formal and informal settings, means, and processes. Learning varies from culture to culture; it depends in part on the individual’s identity, the places and spaces where learning occurs, and the value put on knowledge by the individual and society. 

Reflection is a key component of individual learning. I find Mezirow’s (2000) explanation regarding the importance of reflection in learning aligns best with my thinking; a learner must be able to transform our taken-for-granted frames of reference (meaning, schemes, habits of mind, mindsets) to make them more inclusive, discriminating, open, emotionally capable of change, and reflective so that they may generate beliefs and opinions that will prove more true or justified to guide actions (p. 84). Learners must be able to make meaning of their experience. The processes by which this happens – self-reflection, questioning, assessing, and synthesizing – are all individual processes. I have participated in many college classes where I have read the material on my own, and then submitted a paper reflecting on the material to my professor for grading without another set of eyes seeing it. I have learned through such experiences because I have been able to draw upon my own knowledge and conduct research to develop a deeper understanding.

Formal and Informal Settings

The places learning occurs in – such as the costume shop or classroom – deeply influence learning and are closely intertwined with my social and cognitive beliefs about learning. Places can be categorized into formal and informal spaces and learning happens in each of these contexts. Formal learning is planned and structured. It often happens in schools or at places of work. Much of my job as a public school teacher is providing formal learning experiences to my students. When I am creating experiences in my classroom, I keep the learner centered in my process to maximize the learner’s motivation, gain their attention, and assist in the retention and reproduction of knowledge (Bandura, 1971). To do this, I must take into account who the students are as individuals, what prior knowledge they bring to the experience, and how their learning is situated in my classroom to most impact them. Learning can then occur in my classroom, because the students feel valued, are able to draw on prior knowledge, and use the classroom environment as a place for exploration and meaning-making.

Lave and Wenger (1991) proposed the theory of situated learning as it places the learner within an authentic context where they can work with, and receive help from, others. The other individuals involved could be someone with more expertise like a mentor, or could be a peer. Ultimately, what matters is the situation in which learning occurs and is applied. By placing the learner within the context for which they need to use the learning, this shows the learner how to apply the knowledge they have received.

Informal places, such as affinity spaces (Gee & Price, 2021), are also places where learning occurs. Affinity spaces are any place or space where people’s interactions are centered around a common interest (Hoffman, 2012). These are powerful places for informal, situated, learning that often depend on others functioning as MKOs in the same situated space. The cosplay community is a prime example of this. I have followed tutorials by professional cosplayers to learn how to make armor pieces for renaissance fairs. Similarly, I have shared my knowledge of hand sewing and embroidery on message threads to help others learn. The cosplay community makes use of the internet and in-person spaces to meet up, share knowledge, and grow in their craft.

While formal learning is important and people of all ages spend a large amount of time in formal learning spaces, informal learning comprises most of a person’s learning during their lifetime. From unplanned moments at home, on the job, in communal spaces or even online, informal learning is powerful due to its contextual nature. When I was learning how to use gouache paint, I engaged in informal learning. From consulting a friend who was familiar with the medium, to watching videos on YouTube, I arguably learned more than I would have in a formal class as I was able to direct my own learning and choose what to explore.

Valuing a Learner’s Identity

I believe when learners feel safe, valued, and respected, learning comes more easily. Freire’s (2009) work emphasized the importance of learner choice and voice. Freire also advocated for dismantling the traditional hierarchy between teacher and learner. When I learned how to sew a zipper from my grandmother, I was much more receptive to feedback, and learned more easily because I knew my grandmother valued my thoughts and feelings. When my volunteers in the costume shop needed help threading a needle or attaching a button, I showed them in a way that matched their level of experience and affirmed the work they were doing. This aligns with social and cognitive theories of learning, as it emphasizes connection and situation.

I believe the identity of the learner is as important to learning as the learning experience itself. Theorists who posited identity as crucial to a person’s ability to learn (e.g., Freire, 2009; Ladson-Billings, 1995) support my beliefs that critical thinking and dialogue are core strategies for helping learners learn. Ladson-Billings (1995) conceptualized this as critical consciousness, helping students spark further inquiry through culturally competent teachings. Ladson-Billings demonstrated that embracing one’s culture and connecting to the community can increase learning both intellectually and socially-emotionally. I see this idea in action when my 11th grade students, as part of my school’s curriculum, begin writing their “what it means to be an American.” I encourage students to go out into the community and interview teachers, friends, family, or other community members about their definitions. When my students do this, their understanding of what it means to be an American is strengthened by the experience by the diverse experiences of others. Students who choose to interview others show more insight in their essays and have more specific definitions; in the linked example, the student’s interview clearly influenced the conclusion of the essay. This assignment affirms their identity as Americans and also connects them to their communities.

Final Thoughts

Learning is a complex and multifaceted process. It happens in formal and informal contexts by oneself or with others, uses prior knowledge, and creates new meaning through a variety of activities. The identity of the learner and the sociocultural environment they are part of is central to one’s ability to learn. When a learner is part of an environment that values learning, they feel safe to make mistakes, gain new understandings, and grow. The interaction of cognitive, cultural, and emotional factors all impact learning as seen in the diversity of learning approaches across time and culture.

References 

Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1971). Social learning theory. (Vol. 1). General Learning Press.

Cherry, K. (2024a, May 13). What is a schema in psychology?. verywell mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-schema-2795873

Cherry, K. (2024c, July 12). What is sociocultural theory?. verywell mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-sociocultural-theory-2795088

Freire, P. (2009). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Race/Ethnicity: Multidisciplinary Global Contexts 2(2), 163-174.

Gee, J.P. & Price, A. (2021). Game-design teaching and learning. Strategies, 34(3), pp. 35-38. DOI: 10.1080/08924562.2021.1896928 

Hoffman, R. (2012, September 18). How-to: Affinity spaces [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sbzf1YCeZ84&t=2s

Knowles, M. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy. (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge Books.

Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. American Educational Research Journal, 32(3), 465-491.https://doi.org/10.2307/1163320

Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press.

Merriam, S. B., Bierema, L. L., & Bierema, L. L. (2013). Adult learning: Linking theory and practice. Wiley.

Mezirow, J. (2000). Learning to think like an adult: Core concepts of transformation theory. In J. Mezirow & Associates, Learning as transformation: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress (pp.3-33), San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1979). Consciousness as a problem in the psychology of behavior. Russian Social Science Review, 20(4), 47–79.

To talk about learning in schools, two points of clarification should be made. The first is relatively simple: which schools are being discussed? In this case, “school” will refer to a public-school servicing K-12 students in the United States. The second point is more complex, and one researchers have spent decades discussing, arguing, and reviewing. This, naturally, is the definition of learning.

Some definitions of learning consider learning as an individualist phenomenon. A behaviorist might claim learning occurs only when a change in behavior is observed after a direct interaction with stimuli. Thorndike, widely regarded as one of the first school psychologists, proposed operant conditioning operates on a “simple premise: [a]ctions that are followed by reinforcement will be strengthened and more likely to occur in the future” (Cherry, 2024b). The quotation serves as a reminder that operant behaviors are under the person’s control but are still used in response to stimuli (Cherry, 2024b). Thorndike, while a behaviorist, used cognition in his theories, making his work a natural bridge between behaviorism and cognitivism. A cognitivist defines learning as a change in thinking. Using schemas to organize the world, the accommodation of information into a schema indicates learning has occurred (Cherry, 2024a). Both behaviorism and cognitivism are centered around the individual; however, there is strong evidence to suggest that learning occurs beyond individuals.

In contrast to learning as an individual phenomenon, some argue learning happens collectively, in social contexts, and that the support of others is necessary for deeper learning to occur. Vygotsky’s theory of sociocultural learning suggests a learner is guided through a task they ordinarily could not complete on their own by a more knowledgeable other in order to learn (Cherry, 2024c). Lave and Wenger (1991) also argued for learning in situ: learning done in context where a novice learns through support by a mentor in the role of teacher. Sociocultural and situative theories place the individual within a broader societal context.

While sociocultural theory and situational learning acknowledge the role of culture and environment in education and learning, Culturally Relevant Pedagogy and Freirean pedagogy more deeply consider the identity of the learner and the learner’s role within their environment. These theories point out that if a learner’s identity is not valued, or that they are treated merely as a passive object independent of the context they are in, learning is unlikely to occur (e.g., Ladson-Billings, 1995; Paris, 2012; Freire, 2009). The entirety of the student, as well as the delivery of content must therefore be taken into account when seeking to define learning.

Drawing from these different schools of thought, I define learning as a process that occurs in context, individually or collectively, where previous knowledge is drawn upon, and new knowledge is acquired through a variety of means and processes. Learning varies from culture to culture; it depends in part on the individual’s identity and how they perceive fitting into or going against their world. Learning can be measured by the learner’s ability to articulate new concepts and reflect upon new experiences.

Break from Tradition: Social Learning Theory and Culturally Relevant Pedagogy

Traditional learning approaches in school focus on the individual as a passive subject isolated from the rest of the world. In order to meet the demands of a globalized society, changes to the traditional education system must be made. Shifting from operant conditioning and banking strategies which position the teacher as a storehouse of knowledge who dispenses information onto students (Freire, 2009) to ones that emphasize the learner as a person with multiple identities and as part of a larger whole is crucial to revitalizing the education system and ensure learning on a deeper, more holistic level, has occurred.

Operant conditioning is still used today. It is drilled into students at a young age — raise a hand, this will lead to praise; misbehave, and recess will be removed (Cherry, 2024b). This system works for some learners, particularly students with disabilities (i.e. Autism Spectrum Disorder [ASD]) who struggle with many options, need routine, and require concrete operations. However, this way of learning is not conducive for all students, and also cannot account for all the learning done by students with ASD. Operant conditioning focuses more on the learner’s responses to stimuli, rather than promoting deeper thinking within the learner.

While operant conditioning is arguably necessary, the more troubling strategy I see in education is the banking method (Freire 2009). This perspective of learning presumes students have no knowledge to draw upon and denies students’ individuality. The banking method creates a strict power dynamic and fosters inequity. I argue there are more effective methods that can still ensure knowledge is gained by the learner.

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory, where motivation, attention, retention, and reproduction are needed to show learning has occurred is one such method. This theory has gained more attention in recent years as attention spans shrink and the need for curriculum to be “relevant” grows (Cherry, 2024d). I have sat through numerous professional developments on the importance of gaining students’ attention and then keeping students motivated to learn. The tools that Social Learning Theory provides such as group discussions, intentional pairings, and reflection all fall within higher-order levels of thinking, and thus require more cognition over behaviorism.

Culturally Relevant Pedagogy also shifts the learner from an isolated individual out of context into a person as part of a whole. It identifies the learner as someone who carries multiple identities with them into the classroom. The understanding of who the learner is and what they bring to the classroom is at the heart of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy. Ladson-Billings (1995) makes the important point that in order for students to achieve, their entire identity must be considered. A student’s gender, heritage, and economic status, among other factors, do not evaporate when the student steps through the doorway of the classroom. Rather than try to eradicate or ignore these differences, these distinctions can be powerful catalysts for learning.

Honoring a learner’s identity in the classroom, engaging them with content that reflects who they are, or ties curriculum to their community creates learner buy–in (Ladson-Billings, 1995). When learners are affirmed and given space, they will achieve more academically. Learning will also be deeper than behaviorist or even social learning approaches as this type of learning fosters critical thinking and reflection.

Freire (2009) described several useful tools for breaking from traditional schooling methods that did not honor students’ backgrounds nor treat them as individuals with agency. Freire proposed adopting a problem-posing approach. Instead of approaching learning in schools from the banking method, teachers could pose a problem to students, give students more agency to explore said problem, teach them the responsibility to follow through with obtaining possible solutions, and ultimately empower students to learn.

Like my definition of learning, learning in schools requires multiple theories in order to best serve students. However, early approaches to learning such as operant conditioning and the banking method do not account for all learning done in schools. Learning that positions students as active agents, as individuals, and as part of a larger culture is what will revitalize education and lead to a more equitable culture. Ultimately, it is this attention to honoring a person’s identity, viewing culture as a dynamic aspect that influences students, agency, and responsibility that the system of education can advance and grow.

References

Cherry, K. (2024a, May 13). What Is a Schema in Psychology? Verywell Mind. Retrieved September 28, 2024, from https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-schema-2795873

Cherry, K. (2024b, July 10). Operant Conditioning: What It Is, How It Works, and Examples. Verywell Mind. Retrieved September 28, 2024, from https://www.verywellmind.com/operant-conditioning-a2-2794863

Cherry, K. (2024c, July 12). Sociocultural Theory: Understanding Vygotsky’s Theory. Verywell Mind. Retrieved September 28, 2024, from https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-sociocultural-theory-2795088

Cherry, K. (2024d, July 15). How Social Learning Theory Works. Verywell Mind. Retrieved September 28, 2024, from https://www.verywellmind.com/social-learning-theory-2795074 

​​Freire, P. (2009). Chapter 2 from Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Race/Ethnicity: Multidisciplinary Global Contexts 2(2), 163-174. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/266914.

Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). Toward a Theory of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy. American Educational Research Journal, 32(3), 465-491. https://doi.org/10.2307/1163320

Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning : legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press.

Paris, D. (2012). Culturally sustaining pedagogy: A needed change in stance, terminology, and practice. Educational Researcher, 41, 93-97.